Академия Корана:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān/Animal Life

Herbert Eisenstein, "Animal Life" in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: J. D. McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.

The references to fauna in the Qurʾān. There are more than two hundred passages in the Qurʾān dealing with animals and six sūras bear the names of animals as titles (q 2 The Cow [Sūrat al-Baqara]; q 6 The Herding Animals [Sūrat al-Anʿām]; q 16 The Bee [Sūrat al-Naḥl]; q 27 The Ant [Sūrat al-Naml]; q 29 The Spider [Sūrat al-ʿAnkabūt]; q 105 The Elephant [Sūrat al-Fīl]). Nevertheless, animal life is not a predominant theme in the Qurʾān.

Animal species

The common Arabic word for «animal» ḥayawān (lit. life) occurs only once in the Qurʾān (q 29:64) and actually does not refer to an animal, but rather to life in the next world. Arabic authors of the Middle Ages commonly classified animals into four basic categories on the basis of their habitat. They separated animals living on dry land from those living in the air, those living in dust and those living in water. We find no evidence of this classification in the Qurʾān, which only distinguishes between animals which creep on their belly, animals which walk on two legs and animals with four legs. Yet some other distinctions are also found, e.g. animals similar to men are of greater importance than others. Likewise, some kinds of animals, such as fish, are discussed less.

The qurʾānic term for animal in general and the land animal in particular is dābba with 18 occurrences (pl. dawābb), although this word is not typically used in this sense in medieval Arabic works on zoology. The most frequently-occurring animal name in the Qurʾān is anʿām, «gregarious or herding animals» (thirty-two occurrences) and there are three occurrences of its synonym bahīmat al-anʿām, referring to livestock and large domestic animals. The singular form naʿam only occurs once. The animals which live in herds include domestic animals as well as those driven to pasture, which represent the wealth of men. q 6:143-4 identifies them as sheep, goats, camels — more precisely dromedaries — and cattle. There is also a certain number of specific references to each of these species. General terms for camel (q.v.) such as ibil (twice), jamal/jimāla (twice) and nāqa (seven times) occur alongside more specific terms. ʿIshār (a she-camel ten months with young), ḍāmir (the lean one, meaning a riding camel), rikāb (a generic term for «riding animal», which in the Qurʾānic passage [ q 59:6] is clearly not referring to a horse but to a camel), budn (sacrificial camels) and hīm (camels crazed with thirst) occur only once. In addition, there are two terms which probably also mean «camel», ḥamūla and farsh (q 6:142), but the exact meaning and scope of these words was disputed. Ḥamūla was obviously connected with the root ḥ-m-l, bearing the basic sense of «to carry.» Thus, according to the interpretation preferred by the famous exegete al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923) and most others who have commented on this passage, ḥamūla are mature camels capable of carrying a load while farsh are camels too young to support any weight. Some commentators have speculated that ḥamūla are camels and cows while farsh are sheep or that ḥamūla are camels and cows while farsh are everything else. Others reasoned that ḥamūla are camels, horses, asses and other animals and farsh are sheep (Tafsīr, viii, 62-4). There are nineteen occurrences of terms for «cattle» and «cow» (baqar/baqara/baqarāt, and ʿijl for calf), eight occurrences of terms for «sheep» (ḍaʾn, ghanam and naʿja/niʿāj, «female sheep»), but only one occurrence of maʿz (goat).

The word khayl for «horse» occurs five times in the Qurʾān and we find once the word muʿallaqa used metaphorically for a «disregarded woman» (q 4:129), a term with the original sense of a mare which is no longer ridden. The title and the first verse of sūras 79 (Those that Draw [al-nāziʿāt]) and 100 (The Runners [al-ʿādiyāt]) are probably further references to horses. The titles of sūras 37 (Those who Dress the Ranks [al-ṣāffāt]), 51 (Those that Scatter [al-dhāriyāt]) and 77 (Those that are Sent [al-mursalāt]) may also refer to them as well. We also find words denoting asses (ḥimār/ḥumur/ḥamīr, four occurrences) and mules (bighāl, a single occurrence). «Swine» (khinzīr/khanāzīr) and «dog» (kalb, see dog) each occur five times in the Qurʾān.

Wild animals are also mentioned. We find four references to «quarry» (ṣayd), i.e. an animal being hunted, and three references to «wolf» (dhiʾb). Furthermore, there is one occurrence of a general term for «beast of prey» (sabuʿ), one occurrence of «lion» (qaswara, a word for «lion» that is otherwise rarely encountered), three occurrences of «apes» (qirada) and one occurrence of «elephant» (fīl).

With regard to flying animals or birds, there are twenty-four occurrences of the general terms ṭayr and ṭāʾir (ṭayr is also used for «omen»). A term of particular interest is jawāriḥ which in qurʾānic usage means «hunting animals», while later Arabic authors use this term exclusively for «birds of prey.» There are only a few references to specific species of birds. We find one mention of «quail» (salwā), one of «hoopoe» (hudhud) and two of «raven» (ghurāb). Furthermore, mention is made of flocks of birds called abābīl, although the exact meaning of this word remains unclear. According to some commentators, there was a verse in the Qurʾān referring to the three pre-Islamic goddesses al-Lāt, al-ʿUzzā and Manāt, who were described as «cranes» (gharānīq, the qurʾānic usage of this word is connected to q 53:19-20). However, it should be noted the question of whether this verse ever existed has been hotly debated (see satanic verses).

Although the Arabic language has a great number of words for reptiles and crawling and flying insects, very few of them are to be found in the Qurʾān. Only «snake» (thuʿbān, ḥayya), «ant» (naml/namla, also dharra, «ant» being only one of several possible meanings of the last), «fly» (dhubāb), «gnat» (baʿūḍa), «lice» (qummal), «locusts» (jarād), «moths» (farāsh, also used for «butterflies»), «bees» (naḥl), «spider» (ʿankabūt) and «termite» (dābbat al-arḍ, with arḍ understood to be «wood» and not «earth» in this usage. This term is not to be confused with the dābba min al-arḍ — beast coming from the earth — of the Apocalypse, q.v.). We find ḥūt/ḥītān used for «fish» in general in the Qurʾān and there is one special fish (nūn, a whale?) which swallowed Jonah. Frogs (ḍafādiʿ) are also mentioned. Several passages also make reference to body parts of animals, such as wings, claws and trunks, as well as to products from animals, such as eggs, feathers, fat, milk, meat and skin, and even musk, pearls and coral.

The creation of animals and their destiny

God cares for all his creatures and provides for them (q 11:6; 29:60; see creation). The Qurʾān asserts that God is the creator of every living creature (q 2:29). The beasts which God has dispersed in the heavens and the earth are given special mention in the Qurʾān as divine signs (q 2:164; 31:10; 42:29; 45:4; cf. also q 25:49). God created animals (dābba) from water (q 24:45), just as he created every living thing (shayʾ ḥayy, q 21:30). No further remarks about the origin of life are found in the Qurʾān. God created pairs of every living thing (q 43:12 and 51:49 refer to couples and hence to the different species of living beings), which should be interpreted as a reference to males and females. q 53:45 definitely makes a distinction between the two sexes. Herd animals close to man are explicitly emphasized (q 16:5; 36:71). Four of the animals usually driven to pasture — sheep, goats, camels and cattle (q 6:143-4; 39:6) — were said to have been created in pairs. Gregarious animals are of great importance. When Satan wanted to lead humankind astray, he planned to cut the ears of camels with the intention of changing an animal which God had created (q 4:119). Furthermore, God instructed Noah (q.v.) to take two examples of all the animal species onto his ark to save them from drowning (q 23:27). Just like men, animals (dābba) and birds form communities (umam, q 6:38, a reference to groups of animals of the same species living together), which will be assembled before God (q 42:29). The following passages seem to indicate that animals will be resurrected, although this is never explicitly stated.

God subjected his whole creation (q.v.), including animals, to men (q 22:65; 45:13) and also provided men with cattle (q 26:133). Therefore animals must have been created in order to serve men, especially the domestic animals and those driven to pasture. q 16:5-8 refers to these two main uses for animals, to carry loads and to warm and feed men. Furthermore, horses, mules, asses and camels are to be ridden (q 6:142; 22:27; 36:72; 40:79-80). Men regard horses as desirable property (q 3:14), but they are only appurtenances of the life of this world and should not be esteemed too highly. There are also passages in the Qurʾān referring to animal products like pure milk from the belly of animals (q 16:66; 23:21; 36:73), skins (q 16:80) and the healing power of honey (q 16:69). All of these benefits exemplify God’s concern for humanity. Animals are of still further use for men as adornments. q 16:8 refers explicitly to horses, mules and asses in this regard. q 35:12, in an apparent reference to pearls, speaks of the wearing of adornments coming from the depths of the sea (q 22:23; 35:33). Coral (q.v.) in particular is described as pleasing to look at (q 55:58; 56:23; 76:19). q 16:6 describes the pleasure one has in looking at cattle when they are brought home or driven out to pasture. Thus it seems to have also been God’s intention to create animals for the aesthetic enjoyment of man.

Naturally, all of the animals are at God’s disposal: «There is not a beast but he takes it by the forelock» (q 11:56). God sends down rain to revive dead land and slake the thirst of his creation (q 25:48-9; cf. 10:24; see agriculture and vegetation). By his order, flocks are led to pasture (q 20:54). The bee is following God’s command when it makes its home in the mountains, trees and manmade structures and eats from the various fruits (q 16:68-9). Animals benefit man in many ways and stand as proof of God’s benevolence toward man, who, according to the Islamic viewpoint, stands in the center of creation and dominates the universe, having precedence over all other creatures (cf. q 17:70). Even animal products coming out of the sea, such as pearls and corals, represent God’s mercy (q 55:22).

Animals in Islamic law

The Qurʾān includes many regulations for the use of animals and animal products, as well as for hunting. The quintessence of these regulations is that animals are a benefit to humankind, either as food or as sacrifices. Man is allowed to kill animals to keep himself alive. He may eat animals on condition that they are lawful (ḥalāl) and that they fall into the category of «good things» (ṭayyibāt, cf. q 2:172; 7:157; 23:51). Furthermore, they must be slaughtered in accordance with the law, although the Qurʾān itself offers no information regarding the technical details of this operation (see consecration of animals).

The Qurʾān provides the basic outline of Islamic dietary law, emphasizing the unlawful over the lawful foods. A number of verses (q 2:173; 5:3, 145; 16:115; cf. 6:118-9, 121; 22:34) prohibit the consumption of carcasses, blood, and pork as well as any other meat over which any name other than God’s has been invoked. The Qurʾān explicitly mentions what is unlawful while everything else is assumed to be lawful and permitted (cf. q 5:1; 6:119) and even the forbidden foods are permitted in emergencies (q 2:173; 6:119; 16:115). The only foods explicitly characterized as lawful in the Qurʾān are animals taken from fresh or salt water (q 16:14; 35:12). The consumption of poultry and veal are mentioned in contexts that indicate that they specifically are not forbidden. Poultry will be the food of the blessed in paradise (q 56:21) and Abraham (q.v.) fed the flesh of a calf to his angelic guests (q 11:69). Dishes eaten by Jews and Christians are also permitted to Muslims except for those which are specifically forbidden (q.v.), such as pork.

Islamic dietary restrictions are portrayed as a relaxation of both the customs observed by the pagan Arabs (q 6:138) and the Jewish dietary law (q 6:146, 4:160), which is described as prohibiting the eating of animals having claws and certain kinds of fat from cattle and small livestock. The Jewish prohibitions had already been partially abrogated by Jesus (q.v.; q 3:50; see abrogation).

q 22:36 refers to sacrificial camels (budn) as signs (shaʿāʾir) of God (see signs). The sacrificial animals (hady) mentioned in q 5:2 and 5:97 should probably be identified as camels and sheep. The Qurʾān prohibits the bloodless sacrifices or consecrations practiced in pre-Islamic times in which animals were set free and allowed to go wherever their impulses led them (q 5:103). These animals are privileged creatures that were neither milked nor ridden. According to the most common interpretation of the relevant Arabic terms, the animals which could serve as a bloodless consecration in the past were a she-camel which has borne five young ones, the last one being male (baḥīra); a she-camel subject to the owner’s vow (sāʾiba); the only male descendant of a goat which had also given birth to three female kids (waṣīla); a camel having offspring old enough to be ridden; or a stallion which has sired ten foals (ḥāmī).

As for hunting, animals living within the sacred precincts (q.v.) around Mecca are taboo (q 5:1). The prescription declares that the hunting of land animals within this area is forbidden, while aquatic animals remain lawful (q 5:95). According to the Qurʾān, this prohibition is nothing less than a test God is imposing on man (q 5:1, 94-6). It is interesting to note that all of the qurʾānic references to punishment and compensations having to do with animals concern the pilgrimage (q.v.) to the Kaʿba (q.v.) in Mecca (5:94-5).

The qurʾānic dietary regulations are neither completely nor systematically presented. The rules concerning slaughtering and hunting are also not very detailed. This situation may be a reflection of a debate or dialogue over dietary regulations occurring between the Muslims and the Jews of Medina (q.v.; see also jews and judaism), since the rules offered by the Qurʾān appear to be answers to particular questions raised in that environment and do not constitute a full-fledged dietary code. Thus, many vital questions awaited the attention of later scholars for answers. In order to elaborate and systematize the isolated qurʾānic injunctions, the experts in Islamic law turned to the practice of the Prophet as documented in the ḥadīth. Initially, the passages concerning animals in the ḥadīth received little attention, but when the jurists tried to draw up a complete dietary code, emphasis was also placed on what the Prophet himself had said about animals. It was then that the relevant and appropriate passages became of interest and hence of real importance.

Animals as signs of God’s omnipotence and warnings of punishment

Animals were created because of God’s benevolence and goodwill toward humankind. Moreover, their existence is proof of God’s omnipotence and wisdom. He is the one who has the power to create life and to destroy it (cf. q 3:27). The Qurʾān particularly emphasizes the marvelous flight of birds which are kept in the air by God (q 16:79; 67:19). There are also tales about the events of the past which illustrate God’s omnipotence and in which animals figure. Manna and quails were sent down to the Children of Israel (q.v.; q 2:57; 7:160; 20:80). The dog of the Seven Sleepers is mentioned (q 18:18; see men of the cave). There is also a similar story of a man who was brought back to life after one hundred years and instructed to look at his ass, among other things, so that he could appreciate how much time had passed (q 2:259). God brought to life four dead birds before the eyes of Abraham (q.v.; q 2:260). There has been only one living being who on one special occasion God permitted to create life and this was Jesus. He created figures like birds from clay and then breathed upon them, bringing them to life (q 3:49; 5:110). Therefore, Jesus is privileged. Although not a part of the New Testament, in the apocrypha we do find a story about the young Jesus creating twelve sparrows from clay on the Sabbath.

Here, one may see a relation between animals which are signs of God’s omnipotence and those which are symbols representing warnings and admonitions. Animals are frequently cited when humankind is commanded to fear God’s punishment. God may let the animals needed by men perish in order to call them to account for their misdeeds (q 16:61; 35:45; during the events of the Apocalypse (q.v.), even camels ten months with young will be untended, cf. q 81:4). On the other hand, animals are powerful signs to convert the infidels and make them observe God’s commands. In this connection, the unbeliever is instructed to examine a camel to realize God’s greatness (q 88:17) and we are warned that sinners «will not enter the Garden until a camel passes through the eye of a needle» (q 7:40; cf. Matt 19:24, Mark 10:25, and also Luke 18:25, not referring to sinners but to the rich).

As for the warnings, the Qurʾān cites instances in history in which animals play different roles (see also punishment stories; warning). The people of Thamūd (q.v.) were punished after they hamstrung a she-camel the prophet Ṣāliḥ (q.v.) had brought forth to demonstrate the power of God (q 7:73-9). In this case, an animal led to God’s intervention. There are many different occasions when God used animals as instruments to guide men toward the good or the bad. God sent plagues of locusts, lice and frogs to punish the sinful Egyptians who thought themselves mighty (q 7:133). God also dispatched the raven which showed Cain how to hide the corpse of his brother Abel (q 5:31; see cain and abel). As a punishment for impiety, God transformed human beings into swine and apes for worshipping evil (q 5:60) and some Jews were transformed into detestable apes as punishment for breaking the Sabbath (q 2:65; 7:166). In reference to more recent times, q 105 describes the military expedition of the Abyssinian general Abraha (q.v.) to Mecca (ca. 570 c.e.) on which occasion the Abyssinians were accompanied by at least one elephant. In their raid against the Meccans, the Muslims had horses at their disposal (q 8:60). Flocks of birds attacked and destroyed the army of the people of the elephant (q 105:3-4; see also abyssinia). In another passage speaking of the successes of the early Muslims, God reminds them that he alone is responsible: «You spurred neither horse nor camel» (q 59:6). Even Satan musters horses (q 17:64).

Many of the animals found in the Bible are also mentioned in the Qurʾān to show God’s authority, omnipotence and wisdom. The staff of Moses (q.v.) was turned into a snake as a divine sign. (The serpent is called thuʿbān in q 7:107; 26:32, but ḥayya in q 20:20. Minor differences in the versions of the story itself are neglected in this article.) Solomon (q.v.) understands the speech of an ant advising caution to his fellows (q 27:18.) The jinn (q.v.) learned that Solomon had died when a termite (dābbat al-arḍ) ate away the staff his body had been leaning on (q 34:14). A fish (a whale?, ḥūt, q 21:87-8; 37:142-5; 68:48-9; nūn, q 21:87-8) swallowed Jonah (q.v.) and then cast him in the desert.

In the Qurʾān, we find further references to legendary events dealing with animals. There are references to the cow being sacrificed by the Israelites by order of Moses (q 2:67-71). The intended breakfast of Moses on his journey with the wise man to reach the junction of the two seas is a fish (q 18:61-3; see khaḍir/khıḍr). Birds are gathered as troops by Solomon, in addition to men and jinn (q 27:17-20, followed by the story of the hoopoe). Birds are seen in a dream which Joseph (q.v.) interprets (q 12:36, 41). The dog of the Seven Sleepers is mentioned four times but is never named (q 18:18, 22). David (q.v.) and Solomon ruled in a case in which the sheep of one shepherd wandered into the field of someone else (q 21:78). David also settled a dispute between two brothers over the ownership of another sheep (q 38:23-4). In the narrative on Joseph, his brothers play on their father’s fear that Joseph would be eaten by a wolf by claiming that a wolf had killed him (q 12:13-7).

Nevertheless, God grants grace and possesses unlimited compassion, e.g. toward the Israelites who have taken as a god the golden calf (q 2:521-4, 92-3; 7:148, 152; 20:88; see calf of gold). Humankind should not forget about the goodness of God. They should turn to him, praise him, adore and worship him and confess their dependence on him (see adoration; bowing and prostration; worship). This is the reason that the Qurʾān offers a number of arguments derived from history and from nature (q 2:116, everything is submissive to God; 17:44; 24:41; 43:12; 59:24; 61:1; 62:1; 64:1, everyone in the heavens and on earth gives glory to God). The animals (every dābba, q 16:49; 22:18) worship God by prostrating themselves, including the birds, which do so while flying (q 24:41). The birds as well as mountains sing his praises (q 34:10; cf. 38:19).

Animals as symbols and objects of comparisons

In certain cases, we find animals referred to in analogies. The flames of hell throw out sparks as large as castles the color of «yellow camels» (jimāla ṣufr, q 77:32-3). The word dharra means a «tiny particle», an «atom», a «grain» or an «ant.» God does not do an ant’s weight of wrong (q 4:40). Something as tiny as an ant does not escape God’s attention (q 10:61). Those who have done an ant’s weight of good or evil (q.v.) will see it on the day of judgment (q 99:7-8; see last judgment). Other small insects are symbols of the insignificant and trivial. The idols (see idols and images) people had formerly worshipped cannot create even a «fly» (dhubāb, q 22:73). God «does not disdain to coin a simile (q.v.) from a gnat» (baʿūḍa, q 2:26).

As for the comparison of men with animals or the metaphorical use of animals in the Qurʾān, it is worth noting that negativity and deprecation predominate. It is chiefly the sinners and infidels who are compared to animals. Those who have disbelieved and those who do not want to believe (q 8:55) and the metaphorically deaf and dumb who do not understand (q 8:22) are the worst of beasts (dawābb). In hell, the infidels will drink boiling water the way a camel crazy with thirst (hīm) drinks (q 56:55). Unbelievers are more misguided and heedless than cattle (anʿām) and are even further astray than cattle (q 7:179; 25:44). They even eat as cattle do, oblivious to anything else (q 47:12). The Jews, who do not understand or adhere to the laws of the Torah (q.v.), are like an ass carrying books (q 62:5). On the day of judgment, sinners will be like startled asses fleeing from a mighty lion (qaswara, q 74:50-1). Those who choose for themselves benefactors other than God are to be likened to the spider (q.v.) because it chooses for itself the frailest of houses (q 29:41). An unflattering comparison with animals also occurs in q 2:171: «A simile of those who disbelieved is like someone calling to goats, something which hears nothing but a calling and a shouting [without comprehension].» In q 7:176, one of the infidels is compared to a dog that lolls out its tongue «whether you attack him… or leave him alone.» If anyone associates anything with God, it is as if he fell down from heaven and the birds snatched him away or the wind swept him to a remote place (q 22:31). Furthermore, on the day of judgment, men will come forth from the tombs as if «they were locusts scattered abroad» (q 54:7) and people will be «like moths scattered» (q 101:4). Those who disbelieve and behave arrogantly will not enter the garden until «a camel passes through the eye of a needle» (q 7:40).

The zoological elements of the Qurʾān

Very little zoological information is found in the Qurʾān. Zoological realities based on actual observation are not offered in the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān does not describe animals in any depth and only very few passages refer to animal behavior. Remarkably, where we do find zoological accounts is mainly in reference to insects. The spider chooses the frailest of houses (q 29:41). God commanded the bee, in the sūra named after the insect: «Take as houses the mountains, the trees and the arbors men erect. Then eat all of the fruits» (q 16:68-9). These verses show awareness of the natural environment spiders and bees inhabit. The mention of the termite (dābbat al-arḍ) gnawing Solomon’s staff displays knowledge of its eating habits (q 34:14). Locusts are described as «scattered abroad» (q 54:7).

The qurʾānic descriptions of animal behavior are very basic and for the most part are confined to commonly-known matters. The Qurʾān also draws upon popular pseudo-zoological lore, e.g. some animals are able to talk. Three animals speak in the presence of Solomon, who understands their language (q 27:16, 18, 22-6). As was mentioned above, Solomon understood the words of an ant advising the other ants to avoid being stepped on (q 27:18). Solomon was said to know the speech of birds as well (q 27:22-6). In fact, it is a hoopoe — an exotic looking bird indigenous to most of the old world — who informs Solomon about the Queen of Sheba, her magnificent trappings and her heathen ways (q 27:22-6; see also sheba; bilqīs). The bird then bore a letter from Solomon to the Queen. This story was a favorite of the commentators and was considerably elaborated in later literature. The fourth animal able to speak is the beast of the Apocalypse (dābba min al-arḍ, «the beast coming out of earth», q 27:82) which has not yet spoken, but eventually will. There is no information in the Qurʾān about what this beast will look like or what it will do. Nevertheless, later commentators, basing their accounts on the prophetic ḥadīth, are able to provide a fairly detailed description of it. Apart from the beast of the Apocalypse (q.v.) and the aforementioned birds (abābīl) which destroyed the army of the People of the Elephant (q.v.), no other mythical and theriomorphic beings are mentioned in the Qurʾān. While the Qurʾān does not personify animals, in a very few instances animals appear as primary actors. The most notable exceptions are King Solomon’s hoopoe (q 22:28), Cain’s raven (q 5:31) and the flocks of birds which stymied the People of the Elephant (q 105:3) and Solomon’s ant and termite. However, these animals always act to benefit men and none actually possesses any individuality. Consequently, we cannot say that the Qurʾān offers much information about animal behavior.

The Qurʾān, like Arabic zoological literature of later centuries, contains no reflections on animals for their own sake or in connection to purely zoological aims. Animals are only examined in respect to humankind. The description of animals in classical Arabic literature centers on a few important points. Only one of these is treated in the Qurʾān and these are the practical components of the legal regulations. The Qurʾān clearly did not provide a framework for the zoological research of later authors. This fact is indeed striking, since the Qurʾān contrasts with pre-Islamic poetry which is full of descriptions of the appearance and behavior of a great number of wild and domestic animals.

Conclusion

Neither animals nor animal life are a principal theme in the Qurʾān. Though there are six sūras named after identifiable animals, animals are not described in any depth. They stand as signs of God’s omnipotence and sometimes play a role in his attempts to warn sinful peoples. The Qurʾān, like later Islamic writing on animals, deals with them in relation to man and not their life in their natural surroundings. Animals were created to serve humankind. Nevertheless, the Qurʾān does not provide much information on how people should treat animals. Observation of animals in their natural surroundings is not a qurʾānic topic. If it had been, it may have led to the development of scientific zoology. There are certain passages in the Qurʾān which would make us expect far-reaching reflections on animals. But even in these passages, many details remain unexamined or not described. Reflections on folk and animal lore are lacking as well. Also, the few animals who are mentioned in more than a few passages in the Qurʾān are neither really informative nor detailed. Furthermore, the presentation of animals sometimes seems inconsistent. For instance, cattle adore the Lord, but when mentioned in analogies their description is negative. Apart from the power of speaking, animals are not personified and they never bear personal names. Animals have no individual existence in the Qurʾān. What is more, the Qurʾān displays a decidedly urban attitude towards animals. This attitude is also prominent in later Arabic prose writings on animals. Within this literature as well, numerous accounts of animals are collected without any real scientific research.

The qurʾānic view of animals created the Islamic tendency toward anthropocentrism. According to this viewpoint, animals are beholden to humankind in principle and must be seen in relation to men. Therefore, the animal’s right to exist is based on its coexistence with men. As a consequence, pets were not considered fit companions for humans, and they were not portrayed as such in either the Qurʾān or in later Arabic literature.

Bibliography

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• Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, ed. A.S. ʿAlī

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• E. Gräf, Jagdbeute und Schlachttier im islamischen Recht. Eine Untersuchung zur Entwicklung der islamischen Jurisprudenz, Bonn 1959, 4-66
• I. Lichtenstädter, A note on the gharānīq and related Qurʾānic problems, in ios 5 (1975), 54-61
• T. O’Shaughnessy, Creation from nothing and the teaching of the Qurʾān, in zdmg 120 (1971), 274-80
• C. Pellat, L.P. Elwell-Sutton and P.N. Boratav, Ḥayawān, in ei2, iii, 304-15
• N. Robinson, Creating birds from clay. A miracle of Jesus in the Qurʾān and in classical Muslim exegesis, in mw 79 (1989), 1-13
• T. Sabbagh, La métaphore dans le Coran, Paris 1943, esp. 100-7