Академия Корана:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān/Anatomy

Qamar-ul Huda, "Anatomy" in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: J. D. McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.

References to the structure of the human body in the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān mentions body parts many times, but these are spread throughout the text and particular terms do not always convey the same meaning in different contexts. In some sections of the Qurʾān human anatomy is treated as a functional element, but most qurʾānic references to the human body are employed in metaphors (see metaphor) aimed at encouraging the pursuit of an ethical and pious life. Anatomy and body parts in the Qurʾān are cited in conjunction with the faith of believers to ensure that there is a complete understanding of the harmony between the workings of the body and the message of the Qurʾān. In the Qurʾān, human anatomy can be divided into two spheres. The first consists of the various physical elements, such as the flesh, fluids, eyes, ears, head, heart and backside. The second includes anatomical experience, such as speaking, weeping, eating, fasting, listening and dying, and what the body experiences in the light of religious faith.

While the Qurʾān does not have many references to the specific Arabic word for the human body, jism, one instance of its occurrence is when a prophet says to the Children of Israel (q.v.), «God chose [ Saul, q.v.] above you and increased him vastly in knowledge and body (jism)» (q 2:247). The Qurʾān mentions the body to support the validity of the Prophet Muḥammad’s mission as well as that of the previous prophets, despite their lack of supernatural qualities. q 21:8 affirms the ordinary humanity of prophets: «We did not endow them with a body (jasad) that could dispense with food and they were not immortal» as a defense against those who claimed that to be a messenger of God an individual should possess extraordinary human qualities. q 23:12-13 explains that the original composition of the body is from organic and inorganic substances: «We create man out of the essence of clay (q.v.) and then made a drop of sperm in firm keeping».

Human flesh (laḥm) is referred to both literally and metaphorically in the Qurʾān. q 23:14 describes the way that flesh protects the bones in the body: «Then we clothed the bones in flesh (laḥm)». The Qurʾān also characterizes activities such as gossiping, spreading rumors and second guessing one another as eating the flesh of an individual. q 49:12 states, «Would any of you like to eat the flesh (laḥm) of his dead brother?» which Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210) interprets as cautioning the believers to be conscious of their conversations with one another. Al-Rāzī also felt this passage was urging believers to preserve their dignity by not involving themselves in rumors (Tafsīr, ad loc.).

The Arabic word for backside (dubur, pl. adbār) is commonly applied in the Qurʾān to describe the times when unbelievers turn away from God’s message, e.g. «When you invoke your Lord — and him alone — in the Qurʾān, they turn their backs (adbār), fleeing» (q 17:46) and «Those who turn their backs (adbār) in apostasy after the way of guidance was made clear to them are tempted by Satan» (q.v.; q 47:25). Here, turning the backside symbolizes rejecting truth and being led astray (q.v.). The ex- pression also may refer to cowardice and a lack of faithfulness: «If they do help them, they will turn their backs» (adbār, q 59:12). Other examples of the word include, «How will it be when the angels draw out their soul, striking their face and their backs (adbār)?» (q 47:27).

Additional qurʾānic references to turning the backside are not meant for unbelievers but are specifically directed at the believers who were preparing themselves to fight in a battle. q 8:15-16 states, «When you meet those who disbelieve, never turn your backsides (adbār) to them. Whoever on that day turns his backside (dubur) on them — except as a battle maneuver or to join another unit — will have earned the wrath of God». The combat theme is continued in passages such as «If the unbelievers had fought you, they would have turned their backsides (adbār)» (q 48:22) and «If you fight them, they will turn their backsides (adbār) to you» (q 3:111).

The references to blood in the Qurʾān range from the blood on the shirt of Joseph (q.v.) to the blood of useless animal sacrifices (see animal life; sacrifice). «They brought his shirt with false blood (dam) on it» (q 12:18) occurs in the situation where brothers of Joseph go to their father to explain his disappearance. The Qurʾān emphasizes that wasting blood, either in animal offerings or physical self-sacrificing, is not acceptable and does not bring one closer to God. In passages such as «Their flesh (luḥūm) and blood (dimāʾ) will never reach God, but your reverence will reach him» (q 22:37), the Qurʾān wants to make clear that blood is a precious element in the human body and should not be wasted out of negligence.

Blood and a blood clot (see blood and blood clot) also figure as important features in human creation (see biology as the creation and stages of life), e.g. «[Your lord] created man from a blood clot (ʿalaq)» (q 96:2), «Then we created a clot (ʿalaqa) from the drop» (q 23:14), «Then from a sperm-drop, then from a blood clot (ʿalaqa)» (q 40:67; 22:5) and «Then he was a blood clot (ʿalaqa)» (q 75:38). Al-Rāzī's commentary stresses both the divine origin of human life and the inconsequential material of this genesis (Tafsīr, ad loc.).

Blood as a source of impurity finds expression when the Qurʾān instructs male believers not to have intercourse when their spouses are menstruating (ḥāʾiḍ) or about to menstruate (see menstruation; purity and impurity). For example, q 2:222 states, «They will question you concerning the monthly cycle (maḥīḍ). Withdraw from women during the monthly cycle and do not approach them until they become ritually clean».

References to the eye and eyesight express not only physical vision but also spiritual enlightenment. «Did we not make two eyes(ʿaynayn) for him» (q 90:8) is an affirmation that human beings were created with the faculty of sight. «You will see their eyes(aʿyun) overflow with tears» (q 5:83) refers to an experience of spiritual sight. In various other verses, the Qurʾān asserts that eyes are meant both to see and understand, as in q 16:78: «He appointed for you hearing and sight (abṣār)».

Negative references to eyes and sight sustain this usage as a metaphor for those who are unable to distinguish right from wrong. q 6:46 warns, «If God seizes your hearing and sight (abṣār)». q 7:179", They have eyes(aʿyun), but do not see with them", expresses the strong disapproval of those whose eyes have been sealed. The possibility of divine retribution occurs in q 36:66: «We would have obliterated their eyes(aʿyun)», while q 3:13: «In that is a lesson for men possessed of eyes(abṣār)», continues the theme of spiritual insight. Yet the limits of this metaphor are indicated in verses such as «It is not the eyes(abṣār) that are blind» (q 22:46).

Literal and metaphoric usages also characterize the qurʾānic references to the head. Prior to performing the pilgrimage (q.v.), male pilgrims shave their head immediately before they don the customary garb. The prescriptive force of «You shall enter the holy mosque (al-masjid al-ḥarām), if God wills, in security, your heads (ruʾūs) shaved» (q 48:27) conveys this instruction. Additional reference to the ritual treatment of the head may be found in verses like «Wipe your heads (ruʾūs) and your feet» (q 5:6), which underscores the importance of purifying the body before praying or even entering a sacred space like a mosque. «Do not shave your heads (ruʾūs) until the offering reaches the place of sacrifice» (q 2:196) gives the pilgrim permission to shave his head at the conclusion of the pilgrimage. Metaphorical allusions to the head or to raising it occur in connection with the sinner who is incapable of understanding the message the Prophet brought because of his arrogance (q.v.). Al-Zamakhsharī (d. 538/1144) understood, «We have put shackles up to their chins, so that their heads are forced up» (q 36:8) as an allegory for the deliberate refusal of the truth (Kashshāf, ad loc.). For him, the rejection of the truth results in total chaos in the afterworld, as in «[They will be] running in confusion with their heads (ruʾūs) raised» (q 14:43). In the verses that have been interpreted both literally and metaphorically, the Qurʾān speaks about sinners whose heads will suffer from their punishment (see rewards and punishment), as in «Boiling water will be poured on their heads (ruʾūs)» (q 22:19). More particularly, the forehead is specified in «On the day they will be heated in the fire of hell (q.v.) and their forehead (jibāh), sides and back will be burnt» (q 9:35) to warn those who mispend their wealth.

Reference to the heart (qalb, pl. qulūb, see heart) functions repeatedly as a mark of distinction between believers and unbelievers (see belief and unbelief). “God has not assigned to any man two hearts (qalbayn) within his breast” (q 33:4) indicates the individual's free choice to believe or disbelieve. Heart terminology also captures images of divine immanence, as in “God knows what is in your hearts (qulūb)” (q 33:51) and “Know that God stands between a man and his heart(qalb)” (q 8:24). In passages like “There is no fault in you, if you make mistakes, but only in what your hearts (qulūb) did purposely” (q 33:5), the heart operates as a metaphor for the will. In others like “Those, in whose hearts he has inscribed faith and whom he has strengthened with a spirit from him (birūḥin minhu)” (q 58:22), the heart represents the imaged reception of divine guidance. For al-Zamakhsharī, the phrase “with a spirit from him” meant both illumination from the divine and the ways one becomes spiritually strengthened from that inspiration (Kashshāf, ad loc.). For him, the heart is integrally linked to being faithful as well as to remembering God, as in, “Those who believe, their hearts (qulūb) being at rest in remembrance of God” (q 13:28).

As an explanation for unbelief, the Qurʾān frequently uses the metaphor of the «sealed heart». For example one finds, «thus God seals the hearts (qulūb) of the unbelievers» (q 7:101), «God set a seal on their hearts (qulūb) and hearing» (q 2:7) and many similar phrases (e.g. q 6:46; 9:87, 93; 10:74; 16:108; 30:59; 40:35; 42:24; 45:43; 47:16; 63:3). Other similar images include q 6:25: «We laid veils upon their hearts (qulūb), but they failed to understand it», and q 3:167: «Saying with their mouths that which never was in their hearts (qulūb)», both of which depict hearts that were affected by the misguided actions performed by unbelievers (Zamakhsharī, Kashshāf, ad loc.).

Mentions of the mouth often focus on its ethical misuse. Sins of hatred and hypocrisy are cited in «Hatred has already shown itself from their mouths (afwāh)» (q 3:118), «Such men say, ‘We believe,’ with their mouths (afwāh)» (q 5:41) and «Saying with their mouths (afwāh) something which never was in their heart» (q 3:167). Additional misuses of the mouth are indicated in verses such as «You were speaking with your mouths (afwāh) regarding something of which you have no knowledge» (q 24:15) and «They desire to extinguish the light of God with their mouths (afwāh)» (q 9:32; 61:8). Less usual than references to the mouth are specific reference to the lips, as in «Have we not given him two eyes, and a tongue and two lips (shafatayn)?» (q 90:8-9).

From another angle, qurʾānic injunctions target the speaking voice, both in regard to its potential for misuse and in regard to the necessity for propriety and control. In describing the qualities of the unbelievers, q 47:30 mentions the way they are evasive and convoluted in their speech, when it states, «You shall certainly recognize them by their faulty speech (laḥn al-qawl)». To counteract these unacceptable forms of speech, the Qurʾān instructs the believers in their tone and in the times when they should reduce their speech. Examples are «Be modest in you gait and lower your voice (ṣawt)» (q 31:19) and «Believers raise not your voice (aṣwāt) above the voice (ṣawt) of the Prophet» (q 49:2-3). q 49:3 even refers to lowering one’s voice in the presence of the Prophet «Those who lower their voices (aṣwāt) in the presence of God’s messenger».

References to the tongue (lisān, pl. alsina) center on its use for speaking the truth and following the way of God, as in the previously mentioned «Have we not given him two eyes, a tongue (lisān) and two lips» (q 90:8-9) and «We appointed unto them a high tongue of truthfulness» (q 19:50). «Move not your tongue (lisān) with it to hasten it» (q 75:16) urges the believers to recite the revelation carefully and thoughtfully. The tongue also appeals to God for forgiveness and repents for its sins, as in «Appoint me a tongue of truthfulness among the others» (q 26:84).

By extension, the word «tongue» (lisān) is used to refer to language and human speech. Several passages proclaim that the Qurʾān was revealed in the Arabic language, for example «In a clear Arabic tongue (bi-lisānin ʿarabiyyin mubīnin)» (q 26:195), «We have made it easy in your tongue» (q 44:58) and «This is a book confirming in the Arabic tongue» (q 46:12). Another instance of this usage is «We never sent a messenger who did not speak the tongue (lisān) of his people so that he may explain to them» (q 14:4).

As with other parts of the body, the misuse of the tongue receives attention in the qurʾānic text. q 4:46 speaks of the Jews «twisting their tongues (alsina) and slandering religion». While «Their tongues (alsina) describe falsehood» (q 16:62) and the previously cited «They say with their tongues (alsina) something which is not in their hearts» (q 48:11) provide further reference to this, verses like «Do not utter the lies your tongues (alsina) make up: ‘This is lawful and that is forbidden,’ in order to attribute your own lying inventions to God» (q 16:116) connect with those that have an eschatological significance, such as, «The day when their tongues (alsina), their hands and their feet shall testify against them» (q 24:24).

Many qurʾānic passages forge a particular connection between the function of hearing and the reception of revelation. The verb «to hear» (samiʿa) corresponds to the active process of learning from what was heard. «He appointed for you hearing (samʿ), sight and a heart» (q 16:78) connects hearing to seeing and feeling, and «So that they may have hearts to understand and ears to hear with» (q 22:46) confirms the linkage with comprehension of the revelation. Some verses point to the believers' continuity with previous communities who heard the revelation, as in «You will hear from those who were given the book before you» (q 3:186). As with eyes and eyesight, the ears and the function of hearing are used to convey conceptions of God’s intimacy with his creation and the probative signs he provides for them. Examples include, «Surely I will be with you, hearing (asmaʿu) and seeing» (q 20:46) and «In that are signs for a people who listen (yasmaʿūna)» (q 10:67).

By the same token, the unbelievers are chastised for their refusals to hear or to let their ears comprehend. q 2:93 states, «They said, ‘We hear (samiʿnā) and we disobey’» and q 41:4 claims, «Most of them have turned away and do not hear (lā yasmaʿūna)». Additional instances are, «They have ears (ādhān), but they hear not with them (lā yasmaʿūna bihā)» (q 7:179), «If you call them to the guidance, they do not hear (lā yasmaʿū)» (q 7:198), «But the deaf do not hear (lā yasmaʿu) the call when they are warned» (q 21:45) and «When they hear (samiʿū) the reminder and say, ‘Surely he is possessed’» (q 68:51). The image of «sealing» and of possible divine intervention also finds a place in the qurʾānic references to ears and hearing, as with «God set a seal on their hearts and on their hearing» (khatama 'llāhu ʿalā qulūbihim wa-ʿalā samʿi-him, q 2:7) and «Had God willed, he would have taken away their hearing and sight (la-dhahaba bi-samʿihim wa-abṣārihim)» (q 2:20).

Both the generative organs of the human body and its other sexually provocative parts are ordinarily referred to indirectly in qurʾānic allusions to modesty. The preservation of modesty is mandated in «The believers have prospered… who guard their private parts (furūj)» (q 23:1-5). q 33:35 announces forgiveness and rewards for «men and women who guard their private parts (furūj)», while q 4:34 praises «women who guard the intimacy (ghayb) which God has guarded». References such as «Those who guard their private parts (furūj)» (q 70:29) have been understood to mean wearing clothing that does not reveal the body and restricting one’s sexual desires to one’s lawful mate. Similarly, mention of nudity (q.v.) in the Qurʾān has been understood both figuratively and spiritually. q 20:118 refers to the initial condition of Adam and Eve (q.v.): «There you will have no hunger and not be naked (lā taʿrā)», while q 20:121 «Then they ate from [the tree] and thereupon became conscious of their private parts (sawʾāt) and began to hide themselves with leaves» records one consequence of their fall from grace and innocence (see fall of man). In the verses concerning social and sexual legislation, the Qurʾān speaks of the circumstances under which the body may be partially or completely unclothed. q 24:58, for example, specifies", Before the prayer of the daybreak, when you lay aside your garments from the heat of the middle of the day and after the prayer of nightfall: the three occasions on which your nakedness (ʿawrāt) is likely to be bared.

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